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Charles Edward Hugh 1867 -1938

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Professor of Education University of Californ

THE TEACHING OF SCIENTIC METHOD

AND OTHER

PAPERS ON EDUCATION

The Teaching of Scientific Method

and other

Papers on Education

BY

HENRY E. ARMSTRONG, LL.D., PH.D., F.R.S.

PROFESSOR OF CHEMISTRY IN THE CENTRAL TECHNICAL COLLEGE OF THE CITY AND GUILDS OF LONDON INSTITUTE ;

PAST-PRESIDENT OF THE CHEMICAL SOCIETY J PRESIDENT, 1902, OF THE EDUCATIONAL SCIENCE SECTION OF THE

BRITISH ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE J MEMBER OF THE CONSULTATIVE COMMITTEE OF THE BOARD OF EDUCATION

MACMILLAN AND CO., LIMITED

NEW YORK : THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 1903

All rights reserved

DEW.

PEEFACE

THE publication, in a collected form, of the papers included in this volume may not be without value at the present critical juncture of educational affairs — when so many serious attempts are being made' to bring our school system into harmony with the times and to improve the methods of teaching.

The earlier articles are didactic: in these I have sought to give reasons for the introduction of scientific method into all schools. The later articles are con- structive : they contain the suggestions which, from time to time, I have ventured to make for the improve- ment of the methods of teaching elementary physical science. Whilst the former may be of interest to the general reader, the latter will appeal more to the specialist.

In the last article, in which the question of school workshops for experimental studies is considered, I have urged that the provision made in future should be full but simple. It is very important, on account of the great educational value of such work, that it should be understood that there need be no excessive expenditure for this purpose — indeed that the work is

JV.S37SI35

vi PAPEES ON EDUCATION

best done under simple conditions with simple appliances, space and efficient teaching being the chief requisites.

The essays cover a period of about twenty years. They are not arranged in any chronological order. No doubt, they all deal mainly with one topic, so that I may be open to the charge of somewhat unduly repeating my argument : if I venture to put them forward, it is in the hope that such repetition of a plea may add to its cogency and carry conviction — at least of my own belief in its urgency.

The fourteenth article is my maiden essay—in it will be found the germ of all my subsequent work. This essay may be of interest to teachers, if they will compare it with the later articles and mark the gradual development of the method of treatment which is fore- shadowed in it, now known as the Heuristic method.

Parenthetically, let me here at once say that I am not responsible for the introduction of this word, still less of the principle included under it. The method, in a sense, is as old as the hills — in fact, it is the method of nature : of the animal creation ; of the human

-. ^_ . ^ n . —

infant ; and yet, as now practised, it is essentially new in the completeness with which its advocates seek to correlate experimental inquiry with both inductive and deductive inquiry and is, in this respect, a great advance upon the Socratic method. Its use has been advocated over and over again. But it has fallen into disuse, having been almost lost sight of since literary methods have secured the mastery in schools. Desiring

PEEFACE vii

to develop the method and extend its use, I have ventured to lay emphasis on a name for it which is eminently suggestive and descriptive, whilst being an admirable contrast to the antithetic term didactic — however much it may meet with objection from the classical purist.

But in advocating the introduction of scientific method into schools, still more in advocating that teachers generally should have mastered the experi- mental method and be able to assume the attitude of the investigator, I know that I shall command the ^ support of few — simply because, at present, so few can appreciate what is meant by such expressions. And yet it is very necessary that they should be under- stood by all. It is the office of the teacher to carry his pupils forward ; his success depends on the extent to which he displays individuality ; and the one all- potent means of developing a constructive and imagina- \ tive habit of mind is to engage in inquiry. The teacher "whcTacts merely as the mouthpiece of others is only fit to train parrots ; he cannot fail to exercise a narrowing influence on his pupils. Man is by nature a reasoning being and needs to be treated as such ; unfortu- nately, in schools, this fact has been more honoured in the breach than in the observance.

In the course of a century or so, the introduction of the experimental method has led to the most extra- ordinary advance in knowledge ; the infinite beauty of natural objects and phenomena has been disclosed to us ; control has been gained over natural forces and

viii PAPEES ON EDUCATION

the engineer has acquired dominion in consequence. But, as yet, no organised effort has been made to put our youth in possession of the new knowledge — to enable them to grasp its meaning and importance and to make use of it : forced still to concentrate their attention on pious ^Eneas and on Caesar, they hear nothing of the great engineers, of Black, Cavendish, Dalton, Darwin, Faraday, Lavoisier, Liebig and many others, who in modern times have made the world of to-day what it is.

While the classes which formerly stood out as cultured are falling behind, a new intellectual order is arising, comprising the workers in various branches of science and engineers — men of deeds rather than of words, who are all striving to go forward and to give peace to society, true missionaries in the cause of progress. However much their work may be delayed by ignorance, they will eventually conquer, as they have no selfish ends and are bent on bringing mankind into intimate touch with nature.

Hitherto our schools have been too much in the hands of men unpractical by habit and too often un- practical by nature — trained to dogmatic beliefs and therefore without the freedom of mind which is absolutely essential to the teacher. Consequently, education has had little reference to the wants of the world : its tendencies have been illiberal and narrowing ; worst of all, a one-sided, selfish devotion to humanistic studies has induced an attitude of blindness, indeed of irreverence, towards natural objects and phenomena.

PREFACE ix

Until practical men and women are put in charge of our schools, there will be little progress — there are enough cases of success already to prove this to demonstration.

Teachers such as we need will riot be forthcoming, however, unless the universities take a far broader view of the situation than they have done heretofore. It will not suffice to supplement the ordinary degree course by a year's study of pedagogics — although such study will have its value. Talking will not make teachers — little more than the mere tricks of the trade will be learnt in the practising school : real teachers will only arise 'when the training given is such as to develop thought-power and some understanding of the art of experimental inquiry"

In the case of articles previously printed elsewhere, the place of publication is indicated in the table of Contents. I am much indebted for permission to republish the articles to the editors of the publica- tions named — especially to the Council of the British Association ; to the Board of Education ; to the Editor of the National Review, Mr. Maxse ; to Mr. Murray, the publisher, and Mr. Laurie Magnus, the Editor, of National Education ; and to the Council of the Ivoyal Institute of British Architects. I have also to thank Mr. Maurice Solomon, a former student, for allowing me to reproduce his poem on " The Conservation of Matter," called forth by my paper (No. 21) on " Domestic Science."

x PAPEES ON EDUCATION

I am indebted to Professor R. A. Gregory and to Mr. A. T. Simmonds for advice in selecting and editing the articles for publication ; and I owe the former very special thanks for the manner in which he has at all times placed his great technical knowledge at my disposal.

July 1903.

CONTENTS

CHAP. PAGE

1. THE TEACHING OF SCIENTIFIC METHOD ... 1

The Educational Times, May 1891.

2. AN APPEAL TO HEADMASTERS . . . . 11

Journal of Education, January 1901.

3. THE FUTURE WORK OF THE SECTION OF EDUCA-

TIONAL SCIENCE. . . . *. . 24

British Association, Glasgow, 1901.

4. ADDRESS TO THE EDUCATIONAL SCIENCE SECTION

OF THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCE- MENT OF SCIENCE. BELFAST, 1902 .. . . 35

5. THE NEED OF GENERAL CULTURE AT OXFORD AND

CAMBRIDGE . . . . . .97

The National Revieiv, September 1902.

6. THE PLACE OF EESEARCH IN EDUCATION AND OF

SCIENCE IN INDUSTRY . . . . .119

Science Progress, January 1896.

7. THE DOWNFALL OF NATURAL INDIGO . . . 144

Letter to The Times, 15th April 1901.

8. SCIENCE IN EDUCATION — THE NEED OF PRACTICAL

STUDIES . . . ...... . .153

National Education, chap. v. London, John Murray, xi

xii PAPEES ON EDUCATION

CHAP. PAGE

^9. AIMS AND METHODS OF SCIENCE TEACHING . . 173 Letter to The School World, May 1901.

10. THE WORKSHOP IN THE SCHOOL . , . . 177

An Address delivered at Stoke-on- Trent, December 1901.

11. SCIENCE TEACHING IN SCHOOLS IN AGRICULTURAL

DISTRICTS . . « »*.,< , „ -/ , ... % . . 186 The Technical World, 1895.

) 12. TRAINING IN SCIENTIFIC METHOD AS A CENTRAL

MOTIVE IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS . . . 195

Report of Conference at Guild ford, June 1902.

<

13. DOMESTIC SCIENCE IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. — . 207

The Technical World, 1896.

14. ON THE TEACHING OF NATURAL SCIENCE AS A

PART OF THE ORDINARY SCHOOL COURSE AND ON THE METHOD OF TEACHING CHEMISTRY IN THE INTRODUCTORY COURSE IN SCIENCE CLASSES, SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES . ' ... . . .219

International Conference on Education, p. 69. London, 1884.

15. THE HEURISTIC METHOD OF TEACHING OR THE

ART OF MAKING CHILDREN DISCOVER THINGS

FOR THEMSELVES . . . * ' i . 235

Board of Education, Special Reports on Educational Subjects, vol. ii., 1898.

16. SUGGESTIONS FOR A COURSE OF ELEMENTARY IN-

STRUCTION IN PHYSICAL SCIENCE . . . 300

"Report on Teaching Chemistry," British Associa- tion, Newcastle-on-Tyne, 1889.

17. EXERCISES ILLUSTRATIVE OF AN ELEMENTARY COURSE

OF INSTRUCTION IN EXPERIMENTAL SCIENCE . 345

"Report on Teaching Chemistry," British Associa- tion, Leeds, 1890.

CONTENTS xiii

CHAP. PAGE

"IS. THE TEACHING OP SCIENTIFIC METHOD . .'367 Educational Times, May 1891 (conclusion of Art. 1).

19. How SCIENCE MUST BE STUDIED TO BE USEFUL . 377

The Technical World, 1896.

20. JUVENILE KESEARCH . . . . . ..393

"Address to Conference of Science Teachers," The London Technical Education Gazette, March 1900.

21. "DOMESTIC SCIENCE" ...... 400

"Address to Conference of Science Teachers," The London Technical Education Gazette, February 1901.

22. THE CONSERVATION OF MATTER . . . .422

Poem by M. Solomon.

23. TRAINING-COLLEGE COURSE OF GENERAL ELEMENT-

ARY SCIENCE ....... 425

"Memorandum of the Departmental Committee on Training-College Courses of Instruction," 1901.

24. SCIENCE WORKSHOPS FOR SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES . 452

Journal of the Royal Institute of British Architects, Third Series, vol. x. No. 6, p. 165.

I

THE TEACHING OF SCIENTIFIC METHOD

THIS title is chosen advisedly, in order to mark the contrast between the teaching of what is commonly called science and the teaching of scientific method : it is, I think, to the failure to discriminate between these that the delay in introducing experimental studies into schools generally of which we so bitterly complain is largely attributable,

For years past the educational world has been witness of conflicts innumerable: its time-honoured and most cherished dogmas and practices have been subjected to severely searching criticism and it cannot be denied that they have oftentimes emerged from the battle in a terribly mangled condition ; nevertheless they have hitherto manifested a marvellous recuperative power. Modern subjects, especially experimental science, have as yet barely obtained a foothold in our schools and their educational effect has been scarcely appreciable — nay, it is even said, probably with too much of truth, that the results under our present — may I not say — want of system are inferior to those obtained in the purely classical days of yore when the scholars' efforts were less subdivided — when fewer subjects claimed their attention. The net upshot of

B

2 PAPERS ON EDUCATION

has bsen simply that we are intensely dis- satisfied with our present position and that we realise that some change has to be made. What that change is, we are not yet agreed. This, after all, is a very healthy state to be in and one which necessarily must precede the construction of a satisfactory programme of studies suited to the vastly changed conditions under which the work of the world has been carried oh since those two potent agents, steam and electricity, have assumed sway.

In setting our house in order, one great difficulty arises from the multitude of counsellors : every subject in turn asserts its soul-saving power and puts forth its claim on a portion of the school time ; an infinite number of suggestions are made — who is to arbitrate in so difficult a case ? Certainly, the more I study the educational problem, the more I realise how extra- ordinary are the difficulties which it presents : we are not all cast in one fixed mould and cannot all be made alike ; educational rules must necessarily be made in- finitely elastic and educational success can only be achieved by the elastic administration of rules.

But are those who are charged with the conduct of so difficult a mission in any way specially prepared for the campaign ? Suppose that at a largely attended representative meeting of British teachers some one were to discourse in most eloquent terms of the beauties of the Chinese language and were to affirm in the most positive manner possible that no other language offered the same opportunity of inculcating lessons of the highest import — what would be the result ? Few, if any, present would know a word of the language ; therefore, although all might agree that they had listened to a most learned and interesting

i TEACHING OF SCIENTIFIC METHOD 3

discourse, the effect would be ephemeral and the advice given would be wholly disregarded by the majority. Never having had occasion to study the language, probably they would mentally set down the lecturer as a doctrinaire — as a member of that trouble- some and objectionable class, the enthusiasts, who are always interfering with other people's business and trying to lead them to mend their ways. Some few might think it politic to include Chinese in their school programme. These would either purchase a " Eeader " and endeavour to master the subject them- selves sufficiently to impress a smattering of informa- tion on a limited number of pupils in the higher forms in their schools perhaps ; or they would engage as teacher a young fellow fresh from the University who had little more than mastered the principles of the Chinese alphabet but was considered capable of any- thing because he had taken a good degree. I very much fear that the treatment which I picture as accorded to my hypothetical subject, Chinese, is very much the kind of treatment meted out to experimental science in most schools. In the majority of cases, it has been included in the programme because it is become fashionable and is a subject in which public examinations are held ; more or less under compulsion ; without real belief in its worth or efficacy as an educational instrument. It is not surprising, therefore, that the results have been so unsatisfactory.

Two causes appear to me to operate in retarding educational progress. In the first place, with scarcely an exception, our^schools are controlled by our ancient Universities. These, I think, are not improperly described as, in the main, classical trades-unions ; the majority of those who pass through their courses are

4 PAPERS ON EDUCATION i

required only to devote their attention to purely literary studies ; unless by accident, they acquire no knowledge of the methods of natural science ; con- sequently, having no understanding of, they exhibit no sympathy with, its aims and objects. It is a strange fact that so limited and non-natural a course of training should alone be spoken of conventionally as " culture " and that it should count as no sin to be blind to all that is going on in the world of Nature around us and to have no appreciation or understanding of the changes which constitute life — no knowledge of the composition and characters of the materials of the earth on which we dwell. As the entire body of teachers in the more important of our schools are University men and the example which such schools set permeates into and pervades schools generally, the result of the introspective system of training followed at our Universities is disastrous : that the effect of a change in the system on scholastic opinion and practice would be far-reaching has been clearly realised.1

But, beyond the difficulties created by the low standard of scholastic and public opinion as regards natural science, there is a second retarding cause in operation, for the existence of which we teachers of natural science are in a great measure responsible and which it behoves us to remove. I refer to the absence of any proper distinction between the teaching

1 " I sometimes dream of a day when it will be considered necessary that every candidate for ordination should be required to have passed creditably in at least one branch of physical science, if it be only to teach him the method of sound scientific thought." — CHARLES KINGSLEY.

"If, twenty years ago, this University (Oxford) had said, from this time forward the elements of natural science shall take their place in Responsions, side by side with the elements of mathematics, and shall be equally obligatory, you would long ago have effected a revolution in school education."— DR. PERCIVAL (circa 1885).

i TEACHING OF SCIENTIFIC METHOD 5

of what is commonly called science — i.e. facts pertaining to science — and the teaching of scientific method. The dates at which our various kings reigned, the battles they fought and the names of their wives, are facts pertaining to history and it is not so very long since such facts alone were taught as history ; nowadays, such facts are but incidentals in a rational course of historical study and it is clearly realised that the great object is to inculcate the use of such facts — the moral lessons which they convey. " And if I can have con- vinced you that well-doing and ill-doing are rewarded and punished in this world, as well as in the world to come, I shall have done you more good than if I had crammed your minds with many dates and facts from modern history " (conclusion of Kingsley's lectures on America at Cambridge in 1862) are words which aptly convey an idea of one of the chief purposes gained in teaching history and by which the methods of teaching it are being moulded. In like manner, to inculcate scientific habits of mind — to teach scientific method — we must teach the use of the facts pertaining to_ science not the mere facts. Again, in teaching history in schools, we recognise that the subject must be broadly handled and attention directed to the salient points which are of general application to human conduct ; the study of minutiae is left to the professed historian. But the very reverse of this practice has been- followed, as a rule, in teaching natural science in schools. At various times during recent years — at the Educational Conference held at the Health Exhibition in 1884 and at the British Association meeting in 1885 — I have protested against the prevailing system of teaching chemistry, etc. to boys and girls at school as though the object were to

6 PAPERS ON EDUCATION i

train them alHoJbe^chemistsj and I have also protested against the undue influence exercised by the specialist — an influence which he has acquired in consequence of the inability of the head of the school to criticise and control his work. I refer here as much to the examiner as to the teacher ; indeed, more. It appears to me to be our duty to regard all questions relating to school education from a general point of view — to consider what is most conducive to the general welfare of the scholar; and in allowing the specialist access to the school, the greatest care must be taken that the subject treated of is dealt with in a manner suited to the requirements of the scholars collectively. It is )only in the case of technical classes that supreme (control can be vested in the specialist.

~ln order that we may be in a position to criticise usefully the educational work which is being done and the proposals brought forward, it is essential to arrive at a clear understanding of the objects to be achieved. Much of the work in a school is done with the object of cultivating certain arts — mechanical arts, we may almost call them : the art of reading, the art of writing and the art of working elementary mathematical problems — until the operations involved are efficiently performed in an automatic manner. An elementary acquaintance with these arts having once been gained, all later studies may be said to originate naturally in them — both those which lead to the acquisition of knowledge and those which have for their ultimate object the develop- ment and training of mental faculties. The character and extent of these later studies is subject to great variation according as individual requirements, oppor- tunities and mental peculiarities vary ; but the variation is not usually permitted to take place until a some-

i TEACHING OF SCIENTIFIC METHOD 7

what late period in the school career. We recognise, in fact, that in the case of every individual the endeavour must at least be made to develop the intellectual faculties coincidently in several directions. The question at issue at the present moment, I take it, is the number of main lines over which we can and are called on to travel. Hitherto only two have been generally recognised — the line of literary studies and the line of mathematical studies ; but those of us who advocate the claims of natural science assert that there is a third and 'that this is of great importance, as a large proportion of the work of the world is necessarily carried on over it. We assert, in fact, that however complete a course of literary and mathematical studies may be made, it is impossible by attention to these two branches of knowledge to educate one side of the human mind — that side which has been instrumental in erecting the edifice of natural science and in applying science to industry : the use of eyes and hands. I never tire of quoting the following passage from Kingsley's lecture to the boys at Wellington College (Letters and Memoirs of his Life, 3rd abridged edition, p. 146 ; Kegan Paul & Co.); it puts the case into a nutshell : —

The first thing for a boy to learn, after obedience and morality, is a habit of observation — a habit of using his eyes. It matters little what you use them on, provided you do use them. They say knowledge is power, and so it is. But only the knowledge which you get by observation. Many a man is very learned in books, and has read for years and years, and yet he is useless. He knows about all sorts of things, but he can't do them. When you set him to do work, he makes a mess of it. He is what you call a pedant, because he has not used his eyes and ears. . . . Now, I don't mean to undervalue book learning, . . . but the great use of a public school educa- tion to you is, not so much to teach you things as to teach you

8 PAPERS ON EDUCATION i

how to learn. . . . And what does the art of learning consist in ? First and foremost in the art of observing. That is, the boy who uses his eyes best on his book and observes the words and letters of his lesson most accurately and carefully ; that is the boy who learns his lesson best, I presume. . . . Therefore, I say, that everything which helps a boy's powers of observation helps his power of learning ; and I know from experience that nothing helps that so much as the study of the world about you.

Literary and mathematical studies are not a sufficient preparation in the great majority of cases for the work of the world — they develop introspective habits too exclusively. In future, boys and girls generally must not be confined to desk studies : they jmust not only learn a good deal about things, they [must also be taught how to do things and to this end must learn how others before them have done things by } actually repeating — not by merely reading about — [what others have done. We ask, in fact, that the use of eyes and hands in unravelling the meaning of the wondrous changes which are going on around us in the world of Nature shall be taught systematically in schools generally — that is to say, that the endeavour shall be made to inculcate the habits of observing accurately, of experimenting exactly, of observing and experimenting with a clearly defined and logical purpose and of logical reasoning from observation and the results of experimental inquiry. Scientific habits and method must be universally taught. We ask to be at once admitted to equal rights with the three It's — it is no question of an alternative subject. This cannot be too clearly stated. The battle must be fought out on this issue within the next few years.

The importance of entering on the right course when the time comes that this claim is admitted — as it

i TEACHING OF SCIENTIFIC METHOD 9

inevitably must be when the general public and those who direct our educational system grasp its meaning — cannot be exaggerated. The use of eyes and hands : — scientific method — cannot be taught by means of the blackboard and chalk or even by experimental lectures and demonstrations alone ; individual eyes and hands must be actually and persistently practised from the_*~ very earliest period in the school career. Such studies cannot be postponed until the technical college or University is reached ; the faculties which can there receive their highest development must not have been~"\ allowed to atrophy through neglect during the yearsj spent at school. This is a point of fundamental importance. At school the habit is acquired of learn- ing lessons — of learning things from books — and after a time it is an easy operation to a boy or girl of fair mental capacity, given the necessary books, to learn what is known about a particular subject. One outcome of this, in my experience, particularly in the case of the more capable student, is the confusion of shadow with substance. "Why should I trouble to make all these experiments which take up so much time, which require so much care and which yield a result so small in proportion to the labour expended, when I can gain the information by reading a page or so in such and such a text-book ? " is the question I have often known to be put by highly capable students. They fail to realise what is the object in view — that they are studying method ; that their object should be to learn how to make use of text-book information by studying how such information has been gained ; and to prepare themselves for the time when they will have exhausted the information at their disposal and are unprovided with a text-book — when they will have

10 PAPEKS ON EDUCATION i

to help themselves. I am satisfied that the one remedy for this acquired disease is to commence experimental studies at the very earliest possible moment, so that children may from the outset learn to ^acquire knowledge by their own efforts ; to extend infantile practice — for it is admitted that the infant learns much by experimenting — and the Kindergarten system into the school, so that experimenting and observing become habits. The vast majority of young children naturally like such work and it is to be feared that our system of education is mainly responsible for the decay of the taste with advancing years.

II

AN APPEAL TO HEADMASTERS

MORE than twenty years ago Matthew Arnold wrote : " The want of the idea of science, of systematic know- ledge, is ... the capital want ... of English educa- tion and of English life." The same statement may be made to-day without fear of contradiction. And yet, during the latter part of our century, science has revolutionised the world and its charms as well as its claims on our attention have been eloquently advocated by a multitude of speakers, Arnold implied that the responsibility for the condition of affairs he deplored rested with our schoolmasters. It is to be feared that they have done little in the interval to exonerate themselves : if not obdurate in resisting change, they have at least made no proper effort to bring it about. Why is this ?

A writer on China has remarked : " The contempla- tion of China is discouraging — to think it got so far so long ago and yet has got no further ! The Emperor Hoang-li, who lived 200 B.C., may be supposed to have foreseen the deadening effect that government by literary men has upon a nation, for he burnt all their books except those that treat of practical arts." May not a clue to our failure to appreciate science be

11

12 PAPEES ON EDUCATION n

found in this passage ? For is it not the case that we are at the stage of being governed by literary men — that those who have the charge of the education of the youth of the country are nearly all literary men ; that most of our youth are allowed to grow up as literary men ; that our Parliament is full of literary men ; and that our Press is a purely literary organisation ?

Do we not pay so little attention to studies of " practical arts " as to justify the statement that they are disregarded by all but the very few among us ? And are not the consequences very serious ? As men of the world we must see that complaints are <rife in every quarter ; that there is a growing sense of public unrest ; and we must all have felt that there is a screw loose somewhere. And those of us who go abroad and who notice how effectively the forces of some other nations are being organised are not only oppressed with anxiety but even with a deep sense of shame, that we should remain so callous to our own shortcomings. Is it not time that the warning given by the shade of Matthew Arnold should no longer be allowed to fall on deaf ears ? Should not schools generally co-operate in removing the stigma and inculcate " the idea of science " in the minds of all their scholars ?

It is to be feared, however, that " science " is the subject with which those who have charge of our schools are least acquainted. Nor is it surprising that this is the case, as the majority of men who graduate either at Cambridge or at Oxford are not required to study any branch of " science." Whatever the cause, being unacquainted with the subject, it is difficult for most teachers to understand its methods and appreciate its value or to understand why so

ii AN APPEAL TO HEADMASTEES 13

much " fuss " is made about its importance by some of us ; why we are so aggressive in insisting that science should not only be introduced into the school curriculum but that it should be accorded a position of prominence and real importance.

Carlyle has well said that no character has ever been rightly understood till it has first been regarded with a certain feeling not of tolerance only . but of sympathy. This is equally true of subjects — only sympathy begotten of understanding will lead those in charge of schools to welcome and introduce new methods. Until such sympathy is engendered teachers will be swayed hither and thither by the breath of fashion and there will be no fixity of opinion as to what is desirable. In order to enlist such sympathy it is necessary to speak very plainly, as it is most desirable that a clear understanding should be arrived at without delay and that all should realise that they have a common purpose in view.

In the book on China referred to, a memorial is reproduced which was addressed to the Emperor by Prince Kung a short time ago on the establishment of a college for the cultivation of Western science : in the course of this the Prince remarks : " A proverb says ' A thing unknown is a scholar's shame.' Now. when a man of letters, on stepping from his door, raises his eyes to the stars and is unable to tell what they are, is not this enough to make him blush ? Even if no schools were established, the educated ought to apply themselves to such studies." Bearing in mind the respect we pay to Chinese institutions — as shown in our adoption of their system of literary examinations as a condition of entry into our Civil Service — and that we are at the present time engaged,

14 PAPEES ON EDUCATION n

through the agency of various public examining bodies, in seeking to compel the nation generally to adopt the system, we might surely go a stage further and accept the wise direction of an enlightened Chinese statesman when he reminds us that a thing unknown is a scholar's shame.

We gibe at the intense conservatism of the Boers but the beam in our own eye is unnoticed, for we forget, or cannot realise, how absolutely similar our condition is to theirs and that — taking our oppor- tunities into account — we are far ahead of all other nations in our disregard of the teachings of experience. It has been stated that the Boer has seen his country developed against his will and without his collabora- tion ; but our country is being developed, if not against the will of our schools, at all events without their direct and thorough collaboration, in so far as the applications of science are concerned.

It behoves us, then, to inquire wherein our methods are faulty — what are to be regarded as sound methods. In his shilling manual Aids to Scouting — a book which every teacher should own and study as being one of the few dealing with the " practical arts " which will be worth preserving when text-books generally are destroyed by edict — Baden-Powell tells us that " the main key to success in scouting is to have pluck, discretion and self-reliance." Surely these qualities are the key to success in everything ! Pluck, he says, in its highest form — viz. that of the unassisted in- dividual— is very much the result of a man's confidence in himself. And confidence in yourself you can only have, he adds, when you know that, by training and practice, you are thoroughly up in the work that you have to do. Self-reliance he defines as the ability to

ii AN APPEAL TO HEADMASTEES 15

act " on your own hook " — to be able to see what is the right line to take, according to circumstances, without wanting some one at your elbow to tell you exactly what to do.

Of course, all will agree with this; but can we assert that we in any way train boys and girls in school to exhibit such pluck, discretion and self- reliance ? I venture to say that we cannot. Instead of being self-reliant, discreet and full of intellectual pluck, our modern boys and girls are made absolutely dependent on their teachers and on text-books ; they have scarcely an idea of their own except on topics which have not been touched upon in school ; they have no healthy desire to increase their intelligence. It has been my lot, during the past thirty years, to act as teacher of all sorts and conditions of boys and of some girls after they have left school. I have also served in very nearly every possible field as an examiner. I cannot think that the experience which has forced this painful conclusion upon me is at all a peculiar one.

No words are strong enough to express our appre- ciation of the magnificent bravery and dash shown by all ranks in the present (S. African) war ; but the recog- nition of the existence of such wonderful qualities in our soldiers makes our grief at the terrible losses we have suffered all the deeper, when we reflect on the many and clear proofs which have been given of the absence of proper thoughtfulness and of the failure to apply scientific method. It is clear that to win our battles in the future preparations must be made in the school workshop rather than in the playing-fields. In fact, scientific method must be introduced into schools in order that some preparation may be given for success- ful scouting in the world and to obviate the natural

16 PAPEES ON EDUCATION n

powers remaining so undeveloped that experience has to be gained painfully and almost entirely by undirected self-effort after school is left.

Baden-Powell's book is full of good advice which is applicable to ordinary training. Take, for example, his instructions on reporting : — " Only report facts, not fancies. That is to say, in describing, say, a river, don't call it a ' large river ' — that may mean anything — but give its apparent width and depth in yards and feet as nearly as you can judge. Similarly, ' a large body of the enemy ' conveys no meaning — it might mean a squadron or it might mean a division." Nothing could be more admirable than this ejection to report facts, not fancies. It is what we insist on in all scientific work ; it is what is required in the world by all employers who rely on their assistants for information; but the art is one which is never learnt at school.

In pointing out how to practise in peace times, he strongly recommends would-be scouts to read The Memoirs of Sherlock Holmes, by Conan Doyle, and see how, by noticing a number of small signs, he " puts this and that together " and gathers important informa- tion. This, again, is precisely our method — the scientific method : in fact, I have for years past urged upon my students that the method adopted by the detective is that of the scientific worker and the only possible one to adopt in studying science as a mental and moral discipline. If heads of schools will but regard science from such a point of view, they will have little difficulty in understanding its importance and value as an essential factor in education ; they will then also understand the spirit in which it must be taught to be of use in schools.

ii AN APPEAL TO HEADMASTERS 17

The main object of introducing science into schools, however, must be to develop character on its practical side with the purpose of teaching our youth to scout in the world — to use their eyes, to draw correct inferences, to be guided by what they see and to help themselves. From this point of view the study of method is alone of importance ; it stands to reason, however, that in studying and acquiring a useful knowledge of method a knowledge of facts is neces- sarily also acquired.

But a revolution must be effected in our schools if scientific method is to be taught in them. I have no hesitation in saying that at the present day the so- called science taught in most schools, especially that which is demanded by examiners, is not only worthless but positively detrimental. All who are acquainted with the facts know this to be the case ; * and if we ask ourselves the simple question — whether what is done tends to develop the wits, to develop the power of self-help, we must all admit the very opposite to be the case. Schools, in fact, are engaged in fashion- ing our youth to require leaning-posts, not in training them to act on their own account ; examinations have made self-help impossible. No employer, go where you will, is satisfied with the product the schools turn out.

Speaking to headmasters, I would say that on them mainly rests the heavy burden of demanding a reform, as they are, in a measure, responsible for hav- ing allowed an altogether improper condition of things to grow up. I recently ventured to remark, in a discussion at one of the Educational Conferences held at the beginning of